To describe action Commentary: The word got is never used. I have a shower every day. The negative is always formed by using a form of do and the word not to support the verb. I do not have a shower every day Questions are constructed using a form of the word do. Do you have a shower every day? To express obligation: Commentary: Statement I have to go to see my mother. Negative I do not have to go to see my mother. Question Do I have to go and see my mother?
These are explained later in section 3 of this chapter. Base form 3rd person singular Present participle Simple past tense Past participle do does doing did done The negative of any form can usually be constructed by adding not or another negative immediately after it. Do forms negatives and questions like all other main verbs. Do as an auxiliary is not used with modal verbs. Only simple present tense and simple past tenses are used as an auxiliary verb.
The main uses of do as an auxiliary verb are as follows: Role as an auxiliary verb Illustrations To form the negative in simple tenses I watch television.
To form questions Do you watch television? I painted the wall. Did you paint the wall? To form negative commands Do not watch television. To allow emphasis I did paint the wall. Modal verbs are used to indicate, likelihood, ability, permission, and obligation.
Modal verbs have no meaning by themselves; they enhance the meaning of other verbs. Compound tenses are explained in more detail later in section 3 of this chapter. The following examples are given to illustrate the above information about word order. Example: Modal verbs and word order Sentence with no other auxiliary: I will go to the match.
Sentence with be: I will be going to the match. Negative: I will not go to the match. Question : Will I go to the match? In the past, shall was always used for statements in the first person and will for statements in the second or third person. This is no longer common practice.
However, shall is still considered to be the correct verb for asking questions in the first person with I or we. To make a suggestion or an offer Shall we begin? No negative form in this use. In practice, will can almost always be used instead of shall. Shall is not used much in modern English.
Both shall and will can be used to refer to a future action. Shall is used as a stronger word than will. Its use implies a greater degree of certainty that something will occur or a stronger intention to do something. These set out the rules to be followed by companies in drafting financial statements. In this context shall is being used as meaning must. To express opportunity I can see you now.
To express permission Fahad said that I can stay at his house tonight. Fahad said that I cannot stay at his house tonight. To make a request Can I borrow your pen please? Can I not borrow your pen? Could I borrow your pen?
Could in this sense is more tentative than can. May I borrow your pen? May is more polite, and is what an educated person would say. To refer to possibility Anybody can be successful as long as they work hard. It cannot take longer than an hour to do that. Anybody could be successful….. Could is used to indicate a conditonal relationship.
In other words, to say that being successful is conditonal on hard work. Could Use of could Illustrations contractions To refer to possibility I could go tonight.
To indicate ability in the past could is the past form of can in this use I could run very quickly when I was younger. To make a suggestion You could hold the meeting in Karachi. To make a request Could we come next Monday? To make a conditional statement could is the conditional form of can We could come to you next week if we have finished our work here. We could not come to you next week even if we have finished our work here.
I may not be able to see you next week. To ask permission May I come to see you next week? No negative form To give or refuse permission Yes, you may come to see me next week. No, you may not come to see me next week. Often may and can are used with the same meaning when asking permission. However, can refers to ability and may refers to permission. Use of might Illustrations To refer to possibility I might be able to see you next week.
I might not be able to see you next week. To make a conditional statement We might come to you next week if we have finished our work here. We might not come to you next week even if we have finished our work here. To make a suggestion You might like to try the cake.
You might not like the cake as it is too sweet. To make a request Might I have a word with you? Use of must Illustrations To express obilgation I must visit my family this weekend. To express certainty This must be the right place. This must not be the right place. To express necessity I must study hard if I am to pass this exam. I must not miss classes if I am to pass this exam.
To forbid You must not do that. To make a strong recommendation You must go to see that movie. You must not go to see that movie. Should Use of should Illustrations contractions To make a recommendation You should go to see that film. To express an obilgation You should phone your parents every day. To express regret I should have gone to that lecture.
To express expectation I should be there sometime after lunch. To refer to past actions I would often climb trees when I was a child. To make a conditional statement I would go to Sukkur if I had the time. To express expectation My son ought to have received the case by now. My son ought not to have received the case by now.
To express probability My son ought to receive the case tomorrow. My son ought not to expect to receive the case tomorrow. To express regret for not doing something I ought to have sent the case sooner. I ought not to have sent the case so soon. Need Need has characteristics of a modal verb and a main verb.
Example: Need as a main verb Statement I need a drink. Negative: I do not need a drink. Question : Do you need a drink?
As a modal verb, need is used to form questions and negatives. All modal verbs have a single form. Example: Need as a modal verb. Negative: I need not do that. Question : Need I do that? As a modal verb it is only found in the past tense.
Example: Used to as a modal verb Statement You used to play hockey. He used to go to college in Karachi. Negative: You did not used to play hockey. He did not used to go to college in Karachi. Question : Did you used to play hockey? Did he used to go to college in Karachi? Future tenses are covered later. Tenses are used to describe when an action or state occurs or occurred. Simple tenses do not have aspect.
Compound tenses have aspect and consist of a main verb plus one or more auxiliary verbs. Simple present tense The simple present tense of regular verbs uses the base form of the verb in all persons except third person singular where an —s is added to the verb. The simple present tense of most irregular verbs is constructed in the same way as for regular verbs in most cases. Use of the simple present tense Illustrations To state a fact I like music but my sister does not. My sister does not like music.
To express that something occurs on a regular basis I play hockey every week. Do you play? To refer to events in the near future The bus arrives in two hours. For dramatic effect, for example, in sports commentary. They think its all over. Irregular verbs make the past tense in a number of different ways. Use of the simple past tense Illustrations To refer to a completed action in the past I played hockey.
I did not play hockey. Did you play hockey? To refer to a series of completed actions in the past I played hockey every week. To refer to events in the past at a specific time I played hockey last Tuesday but I did not play on Thursday.
To refer to duration of states in the past I played hockey for the university for 3 years. The aspect of a verb refers to whether actions or states are completed perfect or continuing imperfect, continuous, progressive. The compound tenses have aspect and consist of a main verb plus one or more auxiliary verbs. Compound tenses are a combination of present or past tense with progressive or perfect aspect.
Compound tense Tense of auxiliary Participle of main verb Present perfect I have jumped. Past perfect I had jumped. Present progressive I am jumping. Past progressive I was jumping.
A compound verb can also combine both the progressive and perfect aspects, using two auxiliary verbs and a main verb. Compound tense Tense of have Participle of be Participle of main verb Present perfect progressive I have been jumping Past perfect progressive I had been jumping Not all verbs can be used in progressive forms.
These are called non-continuous verbs and are usually verbs about mental states, feelings, possession, etc. As a general rule, the progressive tense is only available for actions that you can see somebody doing. For example, you can see a person looking at something, but you cannot see a person seeing something you do not know if that person can see it or not. Therefore, progressive tenses of look are possible but not of see.
A list of the main non-continuous verbs is given in the next section. I have walked I have not walked Have I walked? He has walked He has not walked Has he walked? The present perfect tense is used to refer to events that have happened in the past at an unspecified time.
A good way to think of this tense is that it describes an experience I have walked rather than a specific instance of that experience.
The word yet can be used in negative statements and in questions to refer to an action that has not happened already. Use of the present perfect tense Illustrations To describe or inquire about an experience. I have walked to work. Have you ever walked to work? I have just walked to work.
To refer to an action that took place over an unspecified time period. I have studied to be an accountant. To refer to an unfinished action that should have been finished. Ahmed has not completed his studies yet. Have you ever learnt to play a musical instrument? Ahmed has not yet completed his studies. I have worked on this problem for most of the day but I still have not finished it.
Past perfect tense Constructed with: Past of have with the past participle of the main verb Example: Past perfect tense using the verb to walk. I had walked I had not walked Had I walked? The present perfect tense is used to refer to events that have happened in the past before another action or specified time. It emphasises that fact of the action and not the duration. Use of the past perfect tense Illustrations To refer to an action that took place before another action.
I had been to Amsterdam before I went to Paris. I did not want lunch because I had eaten a big breakfast. I had only flown once before I flew to America. To refer to an action completed at a specific time. I had been to Moscow once in and returned in to work there. To refer to a period of time before an action took place. I had lived in London for three years before moving into a new apartment in Canary Wharf. I am walking I am not walking Am I walking? He is walking He is not walking Is he walking?
The present progressive tense is used to refer to actions that are happening now or are not happening now. Use of the present progressive tense Illustrations To refer to an action that is taking place at the time of speaking. I am hurrying to get ready for work. To refer to an action that is taking place on an ongoing basis. I am studying accountancy. To refer to a temporary situation.
My brother is living with me until he can find his own place. To refer to a future event when used with an expression that specifies time. I am flying to Australia in the summer. I am standing for parliament. He is always arriving late! Past progressive tense Constructed with: Past of be with the present participle of the main verb Example: Past progressive tense using the verb to walk. I was walking You were walking I was not walking Was I walking? You were not walking Were you walking?
The past progressive tense is used to refer to an action that was taking place in the past. Last week, at this time, we were sitting on a beach. I was still travelling at midnight last night. To refer to an action that was interrupted by another action. I was eating dinner when the phone rang. To refer to two actions which were taking place at the same time. When we heard the news, I was driving and my wife was playing with our children in the back of the car.
He was not paying attention when I asked him to ring Daniel. We were swimming in the ocean when the sun was rising. To refer to an action that happened persistently in the past. The government was always promising to reduce taxes but they never did.
He was always taking time off work! I have been walking I have not been walking Have I been walking? He has been walking He has not been walking Has he been walking? The present perfect progressive tense is used to refer to actions that started in the past and have continued to the present time or have only just finished.
It is also used to talk about repeated actions. Use of the present perfect progressive tense Illustrations To refer to actions that started in the past and continued to the present time. I have been waiting for you. To refer to the duration of a continuing action. I have been waiting for you for two hours! To refer to repeated actions. We have been coming here on our vacation for several years. I had been walking I had not been walking Had I been walking?
He had been walking He had not been walking Had he been walking? The past perfect progressive tense is used to refer to an action completed in the past. It is often used in the main clause of a complex sentence, to set the scene for the next clause. Use of the past perfect progressive Illustrations To refer to an action continued up to the time of a second action.
They had been waiting for two hours before the train arrived. To refer to an action completed before a second action. I had been studying Russian before I moved to Moscow. To refer to a repeated action. He had been trying to reach his sister all afternoon. I had been running for about an hour before I felt a pain in my leg.
However, in modern practice, will is used with all persons. Shall is still used to ask questions in the first person and sometimes as a way of stating a stronger intention to do something. Will is a more neutral expression than going to.
The use of going to implies a stronger intention than the use of will. Example: Simple future tense using the verb to walk. I will walk I will not walk Shall I walk? I am going to walk I am not going to walk Am I going to walk? The simple future tense is used to refer to future actions. I will come by car. I am going to go to the cinema tomorrow. I will come with you. Shall I come with you? To express intention. We are going to Australia in the summer.
I am going to be an accountant in a few years. I am busy but I shall emphasis come with you. To make a prediction. Pakistan is going to win the cricket world cup next time.
Future perfect Constructed with: Present of be with Will with base form of have with past participle of the main verb going to with base form of have with past participle of the main verb There is no difference in the meaning of the above forms; they are interchangeable.
Example: Future perfect tense using the verb to walk. I will have walked I will not have walked Will I have walked? I am going to have walked. I am not going to have walked. Am I going to have walked? The future perfect tense is used to refer to events that will have finished by some point in the future.
Use of the future perfect tense Illustrations To refer to an action that will be completed before another action in the future. I will have passed many exams before I qualify as a Chartered Accountant. I will have learned Russian by the time I leave to live in Moscow. This work will have been finished before I go home. To refer to duration before a future event. I will have studied Russian for 6 months before I leave to live in Moscow. I will have been studying at universtiy in Lahore for three years before I return home.
Example: Future progressive tense using the verb to walk. I will be walking I will not be walking Will I be walking? I am going to be walking I am not going to be walking Am I going to be walking? The future perfect progressive tense is used to refer to an action that will be ongoing in the future at least for a period of time.
Use of the future progressive tense Illustrations To refer to interruption of an action in the future. I will be studying when you arrive. To refer to an action at a specific time or period in the future I am going to be eating my dinner at 6. To refer to an action at an unspecified time in the future. You will be hearing from me. Example: Future perfect progressive tense using the verb to walk.
I will have been walking I will not have been walking Will I have been walking? I am going to have been walking I am not going to have been walking Am I going to have been walking? The future perfect progressive tense is used to refer to an action that will be ongoing in the future up to a point in time or a future event. Use of the future perfect progressive tense Illustrations To refer to an action which will continue up to a specified point in time.
On 14th July I will have been working for the company for 12 months. To refer to an action which will continue up to a specified event. I will have been running for four hours before I complete the marathon. To refer to cause and effect. I will be very tired when I finish the race because I will have been running for four hours. This section covers these quickly but they will be explained in more detail in a later chapter Chapter 7. Conditional sentences A sentence might express a condition and a consequence.
In such cases a tense might be used with a different meaning than usual. Example: Conditional sentences If you come to my party you will receive a gift. The moods mentioned included the declaratory mood for making statements, the interrogative mood for asking questions and so on. The subjunctive mood can be used to emphasise urgency or talk about things that might happen or are hypothetical.
It is not used much in modern British English but is used more in American English. Verbs taking the subjunctive mood have a simplified form which might differ from the way a verb is used in other moods. For example, the first person singular of the past tense of the verb be is I was. In the subjunctive mood it is I were. Example: Subjunctive mood I would not do that if I were you. He will always miss her. I suggest we start production in May.
Vocabulary LO 1 On the successful completion of this paper, candidates will be able to use vocabulary correctly. It is a word used to name a person, place, thing, animal or abstract concept. Nouns, noun phrases and pronouns function as subjects and objects of sentences. A pronoun is a word that can be used in place of a noun or noun phrase. A noun phrase is a noun modified by other words.
These words may come before or after the noun. A noun, noun phrase or pronoun can also function as a complement in a sentence. Classification of nouns Nouns are classified by what they refer to. The same word might be used as a title and in a generic sense to refer to one of a group. Example: Title nouns Given — Mr Mister , Mrs married woman , Miss unmarried woman Earned — Professor, President They always start with a capital letter when used as a title but not otherwise.
Example: Title nouns Doctor Barazani came to see me. A doctor came to see me. Concrete nouns This is the largest category of nouns and refers to things that can be experienced with the five senses.
In other words, a concrete noun refers to something that can be seen, heard, smelled, tasted or touched. Concrete nouns have physical substance and include inanimate objects and animate entities living organisms. Animate — bird, insect, tree Abstract nouns These are common nouns that refer to things that are intangible cannot be touched including ideas, qualities and concepts. Examples: Abstract nouns anger, bravery, brilliance, courage, compassion, childhood, charity, calm, deceit, delight, despair, faith, friendship, freedom honesty, hate, hope integrity, intelligence, intellect justice, joy knowledge, kindness love, loyalty, liberty patriotism, peace, pride, pleasure trust, truth reality wisdom, wonder Collective nouns This is a class of nouns that describe groups collections of one type of person, animal or thing.
Each collective noun is spoken of as a single entity but is made up of a number of similar persons, animals or things. They can be modified by a number or by determiners that refer to quantity such as every, each, several, etc. Uncountable nouns Uncountable nouns describe things that cannot be counted. They refer to substances, qualities etc.
Example: Uncountable nouns Substances — butter, milk, rice, sugar, water Qualities — happiness, imagination, skill Other — art, electricity, furniture, gas, information, knowledge, music They are not used with an indefinite article a, an and are usually treated as singular, taking the singular form of a verb.
That news was very interesting. The furniture is very expensive. Mass nouns A mass noun is a type of uncountable noun which refers to substances that can be divided or measured but not counted. Mass noun cannot be modified by a number nor can they be used with determiners that refer to quantity such as every, each, several, etc. However, they can be used with determiners that refer to amount such as some, all. Mass nouns may also be used with a partitive noun.
A partitive noun is one that refers to a part of a mass noun and is usually followed by the preposition of. Example: Mass nouns Mass nouns — butter, electricity, milk, rice, sugar, water Mass nouns with amount modifiers — some butter, all water Mass nouns with partitive nouns— a piece of furniture, some of the people, a slice of meat, a spoonful of sugar Both countable and uncountable Some nouns can be used as both countable and uncountable nouns but usually the noun has a very different meaning in each case.
Example: Nouns that can be both countable and uncountable Noun Countable Uncountable Time I have seen Iqbal four times today Time passes slowly when you are waiting for something. Light There are four lights in that room. It is not very light in here. Room My house has eight rooms. There is not enough room to do that.
Noise Did you hear a noise? There is too much noise to concentrate. The infinitive — I like to fish Another way of forming a noun from verb is to add —er to the verb to identify the doer of an action. Verbs ending in —n are converted to the doer by adding —ner.
Example: Verbal nouns Jump — jumper, run — runner, sin — sinner, murder — murderer Nouns may also be formed from verbs in other ways. Unfortunately these are all irregular.
There is no rule that can be used to learn these; each must be learned separately. Example: Other ways of creating a noun from a verb Method Verb Noun By adding a suffix discover discovery enlighten enlightenment inform information recognise recognition love love hate hate laugh laugh Simple conversion Compound nouns Compound nouns are formed from two or more words.
Some compound nouns are written as one word, others as a hyphenated word and others as two words. Sometimes there is no single correct form. Note that the use of hyphenation is becoming less popular in English. Over time A change that happens over a period. This is not the case for English. However, English grammar does reflect biological gender. Gender is important in using the correct personal pronouns and possessive pronouns.
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