Functional explanations look at the social process involved in learning the first language. In simultaneous bilingualism, the child acquires two languages at the same time before the age of 3 years. These children may mix words or parts of words from both languages in the first stage. Stage 2 occurs at 4 years and older when distinction between the two languages takes place, and the child uses each language separately.
Sequential bilingualism also occurs before the child is 3 years old, but the child can draw in on the knowledge and experience of first language while acquiring the second language.
Inadequate stimulation talking and playing with the child 2. Delayed general development global developmental delay , physical development motor skills , cognitive development etc. Specific difficulty with language learning. Not very interested in language, prefers other modalities e. Medical problems 6. Reduced hearing e. Exposure to too many languages for the child Inadequate opportunity for speech e.
Emotional factors e. Short attention span. Family history of speech and language delays or difficulties. It is not a result of deficits in sensory, intellect, or psychiatric functioning. Depending on the area and extent of the damage, someone suffering from aphasia may be able to speak but not write, or vice versa, or display any of wide variety of other deficiencies in language comprehension and production, such as being able to sing but not to speak.
Dyslexia-Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that manifests primarily as a difficulty with written language, particularly with reading and spelling. Dyslexia is the result of a neurological differences but is not intellectual disability.
Most people with dyslexia have average or above average intelligence. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties. Go back to the quotation from Kahlil Gibran beneath the title of this Module. Reflect on it. What struck you most in the cognitive development of infants and toddlers?
Remember cognitive development includes development of memory and acquisition of language. It necessarily includes temperament, attachments and social skills. Erik Homburger Erikson was a German developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human beings, and for coing the phrase identity crisis.
These three factors are behavior B , the environment E , and the internal events that influence perceptions and actions. These were direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement and self-reinforcement.
Direct reinforcement would be directly experienced by the learner. Vicarious reinforcement would be observed to be consequences of the behavior of the model. Self-reinforcement would be feelings of satisfaction or displeasure for behavior gauged by personal performance standards.
Of these three, in American society, the greatest range of exposure is in the form of symbolic models through mass media. These are his work on the self-regulatory system and self-efficacy. Four component parts are responsible for the learning and performance acquisition. These are:. As relatively new area of psychological research, the definition of EI is constantly changing.
The El model instroduced by Daniel Goleman focuses in EL as wide array of competencies and skills that drive managerial performance, measured by multi-rater assessment and self-assessment Bradberry and Greaves, Relationships management- the ability to inspire, influence, and develop others while managing conflict.
Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman posits that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies.
Rap it or sing it. Based on stories you heard for your parents and grandparents about your first three years in the world, reflect on the kind of home environment you have had as an infant and as a child? How has it affected you? Although it is known as the years before formal school, it is by no way less important than the grade school years. At around 3 years of age, preschoolers move, from remaining baby-like features of the toddler, toward a more slender appearance of a child.
The trunk, arms, and legs become longer. Fine Motor Development- refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in the arm, hands and fingers purposefully.
Some of the skills included here are picking, squeezing, pounding, and opening things, holding and using a writing implement. Make your own photo essay about the physical development of preschoolers. Observe preschoolers in action and take their pictures. Describe the gross and fine motor skills that you saw them do. Robert Oppenhelmer. The end of childhood is when things cease to astonish us.
When the world seems familiar, when one has got used to existence, one has become an adult. Do you remember how you were as a prescholer? What do you remember most as a preschooler? What did you enjoy doing? The development in their language ability facilitates their endless asking of questions.
While preschool children exhibit considerable cognitive development, their improved cognitive processes still show some aspects of immaturity or limitations. Jean Piaget-Swiss psychologist His theory provided many central concepts in the field of developmental psychology and concerned the growth of the intelligence, which for Piaget, meant the ability to more accurately represent the world and perform logical operations on representations of the concepts grounded in the world.
Sensorimotor period years Infants are born with a set of congenital reflexes, according to Piaget, in addition to explore their world. Their initial schemas are formed through differentiation of the congenital reflexes:. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm palmar grasp.
Over this first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping. An example of this type of reaction would involve something like an infant repeating the. The schema developed during this stage inform the infant about the relationships among his body parts e. Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and differentiations between ends and means.
At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to the amusement of friends, family, younger and older siblings, grandparents, etc. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly.
The differentiation between means also occurs. And the ability to repeat the act is the result of primary circular reactions established in the previous stage. In addition, the stage is called the coordination of secondary circular reactions stage, and is primarily with the development of logic and the coordination between means and ends, this is extremely important marks the beginning o goal orientation or intentionally, the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective.
In this stag the trial- and error application of schemata, which was observable during the previous stage, occurs internally at the level of schemata rather than of motor responses , resulting in the sudden appearance of new effective behaviors without any observable trial-and-error. This is also the time when symbols words and images begin to stand for other objects. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage. Preoperational period years The Preoperational stage is the second of four stage of cognitive development.
By observing sequence of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of the second year a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs Pre Operatory Thought in Piagetian theory is any procedure for mentally acting on objects.
The hallmark of the preoperational stage is spare and logically inadequate mental operations. According to Piaget, the Pre Operational stage of development follows the Sensorimotor stage and occur between years of age. It includes the following processes. Symbolic functioning- characterized by the use of mental symbols, words, or pictures, which the child uses to represent something which is not physically present.
Centration-characterized by a child focusing or attending to only one aspect of a stimulus or situation. Intuitive thought- occurs when the child is able to believe in something without knowing why she or he believes it. Egocentrism- a version of centration, this denotes a tendency of a child to only think for her or his own point of view. Also, the inability of a child to take the point of view of others.
Example, if a child is in trouble, he or she might cover her eyes thinking if I cannot see myself my mom cannot either. Example, a child plays with a doll. In a way this like using their imagination. This stage, which follows the Preoperational stage, occurs between the ages 7 and 11 years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important process during this stage are:. Seriation- the ability to arrange objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic.
For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a colour gradient. Classification-the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another, a child is no longer subject to the illogical limitations of animasim the belief that all objects are alive and therefore have feelings.
Decentering- where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.
Reversibility- where the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. Conservation- understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items.
For instance, when a child is presented with two equally-sized, full cup they will be able to discern that if water is transferred to a pitcher it will conserve the quantity and be equal to the other filled up. For instance, show a child a comic in whom Jane puts a doll under the box leaves the room, and then Sarah moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back.
This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational stage, commences at around 11 years of age puberty and continuous into adulthood. It is characterized by acquisition of the ability to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available. Later, he attended the Institute of Pyschology in Moscow , where he worked extensively on ideas about cognitive development, particularly the relationship between language and thinking.
His writings emphasized the roles of historical cultural, and social factors in cognition and argued that language was the most important symbolic tool provided by society. It should be noted that Vygotsky described inner speech as being qualitatively different than normal external speech, For Vygotsky, social interaction is important for learning, e.
The initial appeal of information processing theories was the idea that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a path along which information is taken into the memory system, and reactivated when necessary. Most theories of information processing center around three main stages in the memory process.
That is, we only have the ability to perceive and remember later those things that pass through the attention gate. The final storing house of memorial information, the long term memory store holds information until needed again. Very prevalent in Working memory. Psychometric Theories Psychometric theories have sought to understand the structure of intelligence; from it takes, it categories, and its composition. Underlying psychometric intelligence theory is a psychological model according to which intelligence is a.
Each test score is equally weighted according to the evidence of underlying ability in each category. British psychologist Charles E. Spearman published the first psychometric theory His theory noted that people who excelled on one mental ability test often did well on the others, and people who did poorly on one of them tended to do poorly with others.
Using this concept, Spearman devised a technique of statistical analyzing that examined patterns of individual scores. American psychologist L. It quickly became apparent to many psychologists that were problems that could not be addressed by psychometric theories. The number of abilities could not be positively identified, and the differences between them could not be clearly defined due to the limitations of testing and analysis.
Psychometric theories had no means of addressing this issue, and cognitive theories began to fill this gap. In , American psychologist Lee Cronbach criticized how some psychologists study individual differences and other study commonalities in human behavior, but the two methods never meet.
Cronbach voiced the need for two methods to be united, which let to the development of cognitive theories of intelligence. Cognitive analysis helps the interpretation of the test scores by determining to what degree the score reflects reasoning ability and the degree to which it is a result of not understanding the questions or vocabulary.
Who claims stability is more correct than change? Change is more correct than stability? Convinced of the interactive influence and environment on the development of children, prepare for a powerpoint presentation for parents to show them how crucial their role is in the development of their children. Remember that heredity is already fixed. Their children have been born and they have passed on these inherited traits at conception and that they cannot do anything anymore to change them.
Do not lose sight of the objective of your powerpoint presentation. At the end of your powerpoint presentation the parents should go home very much convinced of their role in the development of their children and get very much inspired to do their part. Do the same presentation in 1 to aclass in General Psychology where they discuss the nature-nurture debate or to a group of student teachers.
Read the paragraph that tells so. Relate this to the issue on stability versus change issue on p. If you mark a statement X, explain why. Heredity exerts a greater influence on human development than environment. What has been experienced in the earlier stages of development can no longer be changed.
State in not more than 2 paragraphs the thesis of Judith Harris book. Read on Fetal Origin. Relate what you learned here to your personal development. Reflect on your own personal development. What has helped you the person that you are now? Is what you have become product of the mere interaction of heredity and environment?
Or is what have become a product of both heredity and environment interacting and what you have decided or determined yourself to become? Self-determination or freedom is a third factor. Write your reflection. Statement Yes No 1. Research is easy to do. Research is all about giving questionnaires and tallying the responses. Research with one or two respondents is not a valid research. Teachers, because they are busy in their classrooms, are expected to use existing research in their classroom.
Students are more users of knowledge arrived at by research, It is not their task to conduct research. Students do not possess the qualification to conduct research. It is not worth conducting research considering the time and money it requires. The class may be divided into groups. Except this Module on research, divide the Modules of the Unit assigned to your group and look for statements of research findings.
If the research design and the data-gathering techniques were not identified, identify to the best of your ability what must have been use in the researches. The table below can make your task easier. Although both the id and the ego are unconscious, the ego has close contact with the perceptual system. The ego has the function of self-preservation, which is why it has the ability to control the instinctual demands from the id.
The superego, which develops around age four or five, incorporates the morals of society. Freud believed that the superego is what allows the mind to control its impulses that are looked down upon morally.
The superego can be considered to be the conscience of the mind because it has the ability to distinguish between reality as well as what is right or wrong. Freud separates the superego into two separate categories, the ideal self and the conscience. The conscience contains ideals and morals that exist within a society that prevent people from acting out based on their internal desires.
The ideal self contains images of how people ought to behave according to society's ideals. Read the situation below. The class may choose to dramatize each of the situation before the analysis is done.
On situation 1: Why do you think Karen prefer the peso bill? As long as she received money for her Aguinaldo, no matter what value is. On situation 3: Why do you think baby Liza appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons?
In this stage focuses on senses and muscle movement through which the infant come s to learn about himself and the environment. This activity focuses on a story involving the interaction of family members. Choose a story you want to use for this activity.
It can be from, a story you read or a movie or telenovela that you can watch or plan to watch. They now come to us every morning and stay for their lunch.
Mum is starting to make friends here and is coming out of her shell in the parenting classes. We are encouraging her to take part in cooking sessions so that she can take some prepared meals home. Over time she has grown in confidence with the praise she receives from the nursery staff; they set her achievable goals that have allowed her to succeed.
She can now listen to a story all the way through, sit with the others for lunch without being disruptive, and she is a much happier girl. The regular routine of attending the nursery has helped her grown in confidence and improved her social skills. The support Mum has received here has made her more open and relaxed, which in turn has enabled Serena to flourish. Father What is his stage of cognitive development? Formal operational stage is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make decision.
Mother Formal operational stage is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make decision. Experiences are assimilated into existing schemes and schemes are modified to account for new experiences. This development, however, does not merely proceed incrementally or quantitatively, there qualitatively different stages of cognitive development, and it is to these stages that we now turn our attention.
The sensorimotor stage spans birth until approximately age 2 and is characterized by the lack of representations for persons or objects thus interface with and intelligence about the world are in the form of actions.
Initially, infants are unable to differentiate themselves from their environments and are equipped primarily with reflexes. Throughout this first stage, the separation between the individual and the rest of the world is perceived, reflexes become coordinated, causality is recognized, and means-end sequences are developed. In other words, preoperational children have not yet comprehended quantity as an invariant in the group of physical transformations.
The concrete operational stage spans ages 7 to 11, approximately, and is characterized by the development of mental operations, as the name suggests. An operation is an interiorized, generalized, reversible action. Lastly, the formal operational stage spans approximately age 11 through adulthood and is characterized by abstract thought and deductive reasoning. Formal thinkers are able to apply their mental operations to abstract entities in hypothetical situations.
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Original Title Educ. Did you find this document useful? Is this content inappropriate? Report this Document. Description: educ. Flag for inappropriate content. Download now. Save Save Educ. Original Title: Educ. Related titles. Carousel Previous Carousel Next. Basic Concepts on Child and Adolescent Development. Jump to Page. Search inside document. Traditional vs.
Life-span Approach Concept Approach Traditional Life-span Development during childhood The traditional approach Development change takes emphasizes extensive place as it does during change from birth to childhood adolescence, little or no change in adulthood, and Development during adulthood decline in late old age. Characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective.
Give an abstract of the research by stating the: 1. In infancy to early stage they learn to eat solid foods, middle childhood learning of physical skills necessary for ordinary games, adulthood learning or achieving matured relations with both sexes, early adulthood learning to live with a partner, middle adulthood learning or achieving adult social and civic responsibility, later maturity learning in adjusting to deceasing strength and health, 3.
Sing an appropriate song for each developmental stage. Complete this unfinished sentence. Fixations: orderliness, obsessiveness and rigidity Erogenous Zone: genitals, libido desire centers upon their genitalia Phallic stage Description of the stage: Genitals, The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father.
Fixations: vanity, exhibitionism and pride Erogenous Zone: The libido is dormant Latency stage Description of the stage: Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated re: defense mechanisms towards school work, hobbies, and friendships. Fixations: Erogenous Zone: Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, Genital rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage. Fill out the matrix below. Analysis 1. Application This activity focuses on a story involving the interaction of family members.
The support Mum has received here has made her more open and relaxed, which in turn has enabled Serena to flourish Character description Piagetian connection Father What is his stage of cognitive development? Children 1. Documents Similar To Educ. Mary Rose Ponte Fernandez. Mizzael Dayahan Abuel. France Avila. Minjin Manalansan. John Vincent Malate Espartinez. Yvonne Xyzelle.
Ange Lica. Some of the following actions influence changes in social development as well. There are five major issues adolescents experience during the adolescence stage. In order to answer these questions it is important for teenagers to be able and explore different careers, and alternative solutions to life roles. If adolescents are unable to explore various concepts, or parents push an identity on them they are more likely to experience identity confusion.
Identity confusion results in individuals isolating themselves from friends and family, or the adolescent lose themselves in the crowd. According to James Marcia, for an individual to complete the development their identity they will have to experience the two dimensions of identity, exploration and commitment. Identity status contains four combinations of exploration and commitment. These combinations are identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, identity achievement.
Santrock, The diffusion stage is when an individual as not explored or committed to personal values or a career. Identity foreclosure is when an individual makes a commitment without exploring.
Identity moratorium is the stage when and individual has explored but has not yet committed. Finally, when an individual has explored and committed to personal values and a career they have reached identity achievement. Social development can also be influenced by biological or hereditary influences such as birth defects, viruses, and diseases such as autism or speech impediment. Teenagers often feel overwhelmed with the changes that occur in social development during adolescence.
Along with social development adolescents will experience some changes in moral development as well. Moral development is changes with age in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding the principals and values that guide what people should do. Santrock, Moral development has two different dimensions, interpersonal morals when interacting with other individuals and intrapersonal basic individual values.
Moral development is influenced by environmental factors such as peer pressure, family dynamics, society, neighborhood quality, and schooling. The first level is preconventional. The first stage in the preconventional level is punishments. In general, contours give shape to the objects in our visual world because they mark one object off from another or they mark an object off from the general ground. When contours are disrupted visually, as in camouflage, objects are difficult to distinguish from the background.
Consider a reptile named chameleon. Explain why this reptile changes its color accordingly to the environment it is found using the idea of contours in form perception.
Why are soldiers dressed in green uniforms in almost all countries? What will happen if you write with a charcoal on a blackboard? What will again happen if you write with a pen or with white ink on a white piece of paper? Do you advice a black man to dress a white cloth or a black cloth? What is the implication of all the above questions? The Gestalt psychologists studied such organization intensively in the early part of this century.
They emphasized that organized perceptual experience has properties, which cannot be predicated from a simple analysis of the components. Organization in perception partially explains our perception of complex patterns as unitary forms, or objects.
We see objects as objects only because grouping processes operate in perception. What are some of the laws of perceptual organization?
One organizing principle is proximity, or nearness. The laws of proximity says that items which are close together in space or time tend to be perceived as belonging together or forming an organized group.
Another organizing principle of perception is similarity. Most people see one triangle formed by the dots with its apex at the top and another triangle formed by the rings with its apex at the bottom.
They perceive triangle because similar items such as, the rings and the dots, tend to be organized together. Otherwise, they would see a hexagon or a six-pointed star, where all the dots are the same. Grouping according to similarity, however, does not always occur. A figure is more easily seen as a six-pointed star than as one figure composed of dots and another figure made up of rings. In this case, similarity is competing with the organizing principle of symmetry, or good figure. Neither the circle nor the dots by themselves from a symmetrical pattern.
The law of good figure says that there is a tendency to organize things to make a balanced or symmetrical figure that includes all the parts. Still another principle or organization is continuation, the tendency to perceive a line that starts in one way as continuing in the same way. For example, a line that starts out as a curve is seen as continuing on smoothly curved course.
A straight line is seen as continuing on a straight course or, if it does change direction as forming an angle rather than a curve. We see the dots as several curved and straight lines. Even though the curved and straight lines cross and have dots in common, it is only with an effort that we can perceive a straight line suddenly becoming a curved line at one of these functions. Finally, the law of closure makes our perceived world or form more complete than the sensory stimulation that is presented.
The law of closure refers to perceptual processes that organize the perceived world by filling in gaps in stimulation Reflection Dear student, reflect on the following questions? Try to give a pictorial representation of the laws of perceptual organization. Compare and contrast these laws of organization 2. Depth perception If we live in a two-dimensional world, form perception would be sufficient.
But because we live in a three-dimensional world, we have evolved depth perception-the ability to judge the distance of objects. Given that images on the retina are two dimensional, how can we perceive depth?
That is, how can we determine the distance of objects the distal stimulus from the pattern of stimulation on our retinas the proximal stimulus? Depth perception depends on the use binocular cues and monocular cues there are two kinds of binocular cues: retinal disparity and convergence.
The two kinds of binocular cues require the interaction of both eyes. Retinal disparity is, the degree of difference between the image of an object that are focused on the two retinas. The closer the object, the greater is the retinal disparity. Look at the finger with one eye closed. Then look at it with the other closed. You will notice that the background shifts as you view the scene with different views of the same stimulus. Retinal disparity is greater when an object is near you than when it is farther away from you.
Certain cells in visual cortex detect the degree of retinal disparity, which the brain uses to estimate the distance of an object focused on the retinas. The second binocular cue to depth is convergence, the degree to which the eyes turn inward to focus on an object. As you can confirm for yourself, the closer the objects are the greater the convergence of the eyes. Hold a forefinger vertically in front of your face and move it toward your nose.
You should notice an increase in ocular muscle tension as your finger approaches your nose. Neurons in the cerebral cortex translate the amount of muscle tension into an estimate of the distance of your finger. Not that convergence is associated with important everyday activities.
For example, drinking alcohol impairs depth perception by disrupting the normal convergence of the eyes and using a computer terminal for hours induce eye fatigue caused by continues convergence.
Binocular cues require two eyes, whereas monocular cues require only one. This means that even people who have lost sight in one eye may still have good depth perception. One monocular is accommodation, which is the change in the shape of the lens that lets you focus the image of an object on the retina.
Neuron in the rectum assume that the greater the accommodation of the lens, the closer the object. But prolonged accommodation can alter your depth perception. For example, if you stare at a near object for a long time and then look at a more distant object, the more distant object will look farther away than it is. A second monocular cue is motion parallax, the tendency to perceive ourselves as passing objects faster when they are closer to us than when they are farther away.
You will notice this when you drive on a rural road. You perceive yourself passing nearby telephone poles faster than you are passing a farmhouse. Leonardo da Vinci formalized pictorial cues year ago in teaching his art students how to use them to make their paintings look more realistic. He noted that an object that overlaps another object will appear closer, a cue called interposition.
Because your psychology professor overlaps the blackboard, you know that she or he is closer to you than the blackboard is. Comparing the relative size of objects also provides a cue to their distance. If two people are about the same height and one casts a smaller image on your retina. You will perceive that person as farther away. You probably have noticed that parallel objects, such as railroad tracks, seem to get closer as the further away and farther apart as they get closer.
The pictorial cue, linear perspective, may even have practical application. During world War II, naval aviation cadets flying at night sometimes crashed into airplanes ahead of them, apparently because of failure to judge the distance of those plans. Taking advantage of linear perspective solved this problem. Two taillights set a standard distance apart replaced the traditional single taillight. As a result, when pilots noticed that the taillights of an airplane appeared to move farther apart, they realized that they were getting closer to it.
Objects that are higher in your visual field seem to be farther away. If you paint a picture, you create depth by placing more distant objects higher on the Canvas.
Shading patterns provide cues to distance because areas that are in shadow tend to recede, while areas that are in light tend to stand out. Painters use shading to make balls, balloons, and organs appear round. Aerial perspective depends on the clarity of objects. Closer objects seem clearer than more distant ones. A distant mountain will look hazier than a near one. The final monocular cue, the texture gradient, affects depth perception because the nearer an object, the more details we can make out and the farther an object, the more details we can make out, and the farther an object, the fewer details we can make out.
When you look across a field, you can see every blade of grass near you, but only an expanse of green far away from you. Even 7 month old infants respond to the texture gradient cue. When presented with drawings that use the texture gradient to make some objects appear to be in the foreground and others in the background, infants will reach for an object in the foreground.
Perceptual Constancies The image of a given object focused on your retina may vary in size, shape, and brightness. Yet you will continue to perceive the object as stable in size, shape, and brightness because of perceptual constancy. This is adaptive, because it provides you with a more visually stable world, making it easier for you to function in it, as an object gets farther away from you, it produces a smaller image on your retina. If you know the actual size of an object, size constancy makes you interpret a change in its retinal size as a change in its distance rather than a change in its size.
When you see a car a block away, it does not seem smaller than one that is half a block away, even though the more distant car produces a smaller image on your retina. Size constancy can be disrupted by alcohol. In one study, young adults drank alcohol and were then asked to estimate the size of an object. They tended to underestimate its size. Disruption of size constancy might be one way that alcohol intoxication promotes automobile accidents. Shape constancy assures that an object of known shape will appear to maintain its normal shape regardless of the angle from which you view it.
Close this book and hold it at various orientations relative to your line of sight. Unless you look directly at the cover when it is on a plane perpendicular to your line of vision, it will never cast a rectangular image on your retinas, yet you will continue to perceive it as rectangular.
Shape constancy occurs because your brain compensates for the slant of an object relative to your line of sight. Though the amount of light reflected from a given object can vary, we perceive the object as having a constant brightness, this is called brightness constancy.
A white shirt appears equally bright in dim light or bright light. But brightness constancy is relative to other objects. If you look at a white shirt in dim light in the presence on nonwhite objects in the same light in the presence on nonwhite objects in the same light, it will maintain its brightness. But if you look at the white shirt by itself, perhaps by viewing a large area of it though a hollow tube, it will appear dully in dim light and brighter in sunlight.
And because he never had seen such a creature, he assumed that it was a monster. This shows how the misapplication of a visual cue, in this case perceived size constancy, can produce a visual illusion. Visual illusions provide clues to the processes involved in normal visual perception. For example, from ancient times to modern times, people have been mystified by the moon illusion illustrated in Figure in which the moon appears larger when it is at the horizon than when it is overhead.
This is an illusion because the moon is the same distance from us at the horizon as when it is overhead. Thus, the retinal image it produces is the same size when it is at the horizon as when it is overhead.
Perhaps Franz Muller-Lyer, developed the most widely studied illusion. But if you take a ruler and measure the lines, you will find that they are equal in length. Figs 5. Though no explanation has achieved universal acceptance, a favored one relies on size constancy and the resemblance of the figure on the right to the inside corner of a room and the resemblance of the figure on the left to the outside corner of a building.
Given that the lines project images of equal length on the retina, the lines that appear farther away will be perceived as longer. Because an inside corner of a room appears farther away than an outside corner of a building, the line on the right appears farther and, therefore, longer than the line on the left. In general, perception is the act of knowing through sensation.
But, some people appear to have an ability to know other people, objects, and events without any sensory contact an experience called extra sensory perception ESP or paranormal ability. Have you ever heard or experienced such phenomena?
What specific type? Do you believe it is true? Do you think psychologists and scientists believe in ESP? Summary The act of knowing involves the complementary processes of sensation and perception.
As discussed earlier, sensation is normally our first encounter with the reality in which receptor cells in the sensory organs recode the physical energy or stimulations in to a neural message a phenomenon called transduction.
Following the discussion on sensation, you dealt with perception as a next process of meaning making from the otherwise meaningless sensory input. Further extending the selective nature of perception, this section examined the characteristics, determinates and principles of perception both in two dimensional form perception and three-dimensional depth perception world along with other common characteristics of perception: i.
In trying to make sense out of the surrounding, humans respond, in general, to certain stimulation ignoring others selectivity of perceptions. Such selective perception divides the surrounding into a focus and a margin with the possibility that what is in the focus may shift into the margin and vice versa. Items of the surrounding which get into the focus are more likely to be: i. Bigger in size and brighter in intensity, ii. Frequently occurring to the senses, iii.
Novel enough to creating contrast with the one in the perceptual field and iv. Moving rather than stagnating. The psychological states of the perceiver i. This figure- ground perception is called form perception because of contours. Organizing perception into a figure and a ground may take the law of closure, proximity, similarity, symmetry or continuation. Form perception applies only for a two-dimensional world.
But we are living in a three dimensional world where by perception of distance is a matter of necessity. Such perception involves recognizing how distant objects are from the pattern of stimulation on our retinas.
While binocular cues rely inertial disparity and convergence, monocular cues involve accommodation. Motion parallax, and such pictorial cues as interposition, aerial perspective, linear perspective, texture gradient, elevation, and shading patterns. In fact, there are some exceptions to this in which perceptual illusions may occur, providing otherwise. In this unit however, you will study the foundations of learning and explore the nature of learning.
The contents of this unit are presented in two sections. In the first section, you will explore the nature of learning and in the second you will focus on the theories of learning and their applications. Learner Appetizer Discuss over the following facts.
Imagine if you suddenly lost all you had ever learned. What could you do? You would be unable to read, write, or speak. Every individual uses learning techniques and processes and directive unique thoughts and memories to perform day-to-day functions. Definition, Characteristics and Principles of Learning 3.
There are many definitions of learning. However, the most widely accepted definition is the one given below. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a result of experience or practice.
Teachers and school administrative personnel need to have a good understanding of the general characteristics of learning in order to apply them in school learning situation. If learning is a change in behavior as a result of experience, and then instruction must include a careful and systematic creation of those experiences that promote learning.
Yoakman and Simpson??? Learning is continuous modification of behavior throughout life 2. Learning is pervasive, it reaches into all aspects of human life. Learning is often a change in the organization of experiences. Learning is responsive to incentives 6. Learning is an active process 7.
Learning is purposeful 8. Learning depends on maturation, motivation and practice. There are important principles that help explaining how learning occurs effectively. If so, how? Some of the factors that affect learning are the following. The stronger and clearer the motives for learning, the greater are the effort to learn.
When the motives of learning are high, the learner becomes enthusiastic. Maturation: Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a given task. Health condition of the learner: The learner should be in a good health status to learn.
Example- Sensory defects, malnutrition, toxic conditions of the body, loss of sleep and fatigue hinder effective learning. Whereas self-respect, self- reliance, and self-confidence are necessary for effective learning.
Good working conditions — absence or presence of fresh air, light, comfortable surroundings, moderate temperature, absence of distractions like noise and learning aids determine learning effectiveness. Background experiences: having background experiences affect effectiveness of learning. All related facts and understandings from a previously learned course should be brought to new learning. Length of the working period: Learning periods should neither be too short nor too long.
Long learning time sets fatigue and reduces effectiveness in learning. Massed and distributed learning: Learning that spreads across time with reasonable time gaps brings better results compared with crammed learning that occurs at once or within short span of time.
Here in this section, you will learn about theories of learning with their possible implications and applications. The theories discussed in the section are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational and cognitive learning theories. Behavioral Theory of Learning Behavioral theory of learning believes that learning occurs as a result of stimulus-response associations.
Behavioral theories emphasize observable behaviors, seek laws to govern all organisms, and provide explanations which focus on consequences. Behaviorists also differ among themselves with respect to their views about the role of reinforcement in learning.
There are two major behavioral theories of learning. They are known as classical and operant Conditioning. What about meeting a person whom you mate? Each of the responses in these questions seem to illustrate the nature of what is called classical conditioning that you are to explore know now. Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of making involuntary emotional or physiological responses to stimuli that normally elicit no response; for example, s fear, increased heartbeat, salivation or sweating at the sight of a hyena.
Through the process of classical conditioning, humans and animals can be trained to act involuntarily to a stimulus that previously had no effect - or a very different effect - on them. Classical conditioning involves what are known as conditioned reflexes. Another example of a reflex is the production of saliva in a response to food when you are hungry, and it was this response which Pavlov first investigated when he discovered classical conditioning. Therefore, in short Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.
Basics of Classical Condition To demonstrate classical conditioning, we must first identify stimuli and responses. In addition, you must be well familiarized with the following basic terms of classical condition: Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest. Unconditioned stimulus UCS : A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. Unconditioned response UCR : A response that is natural and needs no training e.
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